The point of this module is to understand dispatch, which is to say, the way the correct method is called based on the arguments; we will also see how to use it to write the least possible amount of code!

In order to illustrate some fundamental mechanisms, we will build a rock/paper/scissors game, with a twist: it will rely entirely on types and dispatch – there will be no if, and most of the functions will very likely be one-liners with almost no code at all.

The first thing we will declare is an abstract type. Abstract types are documented in the Julia manual (we know you don’t want to, but you still have to read it), and are essentially a way to group types that share some form of kinship.

abstract type Strategy end

Based on this, we can define a series of possible moves, which are sub-types of Strategy. These types are not abstract, and called concrete, because we can actually create them:

struct Rock <: Strategy end
struct Paper <: Strategy end
struct Scissors <: Strategy end

Let’s have a look at these types. First, what is the type of Rock?

typeof(Rock)

DataType

This shows that Rock is indeed a type (a DataType, specifically). We can further check that it is a sub-type of Strategy:

Rock <: Strategy

true

The <: operator is an interesting one – it reads as “is a subtype of”, and is going to be very helpful to limit which methods are called. Finally, we can check that we are able to create objects of the type Rock, using the Rock() method (or constructor):

typeof(Rock())

Main.var"##337".Rock

Let’s finally check that an instance of Rock is indeed a Rock, but is also a Strategy:

isa(Rock(), Rock)

true

isa(Rock(), Strategy)

true

There is an infix version of isa, so we can use it with

Rock() isa Strategy

true

Surprisingly, this is enough to build our rock/papers/scissors game. We will build the most basic components: a function called move, which is going to take two arguments (the Strategy for each player), and returning the score of each player in a tuple.

To keep things simple, we will start with the situation in which both players use the same strategy. We can think about this situation as the following question: “what are the types of the arguments corresponding to two identical strategies?”. The two arguments will have the same type (T), and this type is a Strategy (T <: Strategy).

We can write the function this way:

move(::T, ::T) where {T<:Strategy} = (0, 0)

move (generic function with 1 method)

Wait! Where are the arguments names? Well, they are not here because we do not need them. All the information is given by the types, and so instead of writing p1::T, p2::T, we can omit the names of the arguments. It’s nice, because it is very concise.

But let’s scroll back a little bit: when we declared the function, the output we got from Julia was

move (generic function with 1 method)

Understanding the difference between a function and a method is going to be crucial moving forward. A function is the name of a family of methods. For example, the sin function has many methods:

sin

sin (generic function with 17 methods)

You may list them with methods(sin) and see for yourself why there are many different ones. If you don’t want to do this, the summarized version is: each method is the most optimized code given the type of the arguments given to the function. This is dispatch.

Now that we have established what dispatch is, let’s run a little bit of code:

move(Rock(), Rock())

(0, 0)

Note that we use Rock(), not Rock, and calling typeof() on both versions should clear up why.

move(Paper(), Paper())

(0, 0)

At this point, it is time to try something that will not work, because we have not written a method for it. As we are about to (potentially) fail, we might as so do it gracefully, and use a try/catch block. What we are going to attempt is to play a move of paper against rock. First, let’s ensure it does not work:

try
    move(Paper(), Rock())
catch error
    msg = """There was a $(typeof(error)):
    $(error)
    """
    print(msg)
end

There was a MethodError:
MethodError(Main.var"##337".move, (Main.var"##337".Paper(), Main.var"##337".Rock()), 0x0000000000007fc4)

Succes! We had a MethodError (note that in Julia, even errors have types, so you can handle different errors differently). Why didn’t it work? Well, we do not have a method that would be dispatched to when the arguments are of types, respectively, Paper and Rock. Thankfully, writing one is easy:

move(::Paper, ::Rock) = (1,0)

move (generic function with 2 methods)

Note that move is still a generic function, but it has two methods. We can try the move again:

move(Paper(), Rock())

(1, 0)

In order to complete the game, we will add two other moves:

move(::Scissors, ::Paper) = (1, 0)
move(::Rock, ::Scissors) = (1, 0)

move (generic function with 4 methods)

This will take care of the cases where player 1 wins. Note that we are still not using any argument name, as we care only about the types. But what if player 2 were to win? We could define a method for move(::Rock, ::Paper), and then two additional methods for the other combinations, but there is a more efficient way!

Dispatch (in Julia) goes from most specific to least specific. In fact, if you use the methods function on a function, it will list the methods in order of specificity:

methods(move)

# 4 methods for generic function "move":
[1] move(::Main.var"##337".Paper, ::Main.var"##337".Rock) in Main.var"##337" at /home/runner/work/ScientificComputingForTheRestOfUs/ScientificComputingForTheRestOfUs/dist/content/04_basic_functions_usage/02_dispatch.md:1
[2] move(::Main.var"##337".Scissors, ::Main.var"##337".Paper) in Main.var"##337" at /home/runner/work/ScientificComputingForTheRestOfUs/ScientificComputingForTheRestOfUs/dist/content/04_basic_functions_usage/02_dispatch.md:1
[3] move(::Main.var"##337".Rock, ::Main.var"##337".Scissors) in Main.var"##337" at /home/runner/work/ScientificComputingForTheRestOfUs/ScientificComputingForTheRestOfUs/dist/content/04_basic_functions_usage/02_dispatch.md:2
[4] move(::T, ::T) where T<:Main.var"##337".Strategy in Main.var"##337" at /home/runner/work/ScientificComputingForTheRestOfUs/ScientificComputingForTheRestOfUs/dist/content/04_basic_functions_usage/02_dispatch.md:1

The problem we want to solve becomes, in plain English, “the move has two types for which we do not have a specialized method, but who are not the same type, and then return the result in the correct order”. In plain Julia, this becomes:

move(p1::S1, p2::S2) where {S1 <: Strategy, S2 <: Strategy} = reverse(move(p2, p1))

move (generic function with 5 methods)

Why will it work? If you look at the updated output of methods, you will see that this method has a lower specificity than the specialized methods, or the method with the same types: it will only be dispatched to as a last resort!

Let’s now check that our program works:

valid_moves = [Rock(), Paper(), Scissors()]

for player1 in valid_moves
    for player2 in valid_moves
        println("$(player1) \t $(player2)\t→\t$(move(player1, player2))")
    end
end

Main.var"##337".Rock() 	 Main.var"##337".Rock()	→	(0, 0)
Main.var"##337".Rock() 	 Main.var"##337".Paper()	→	(0, 1)
Main.var"##337".Rock() 	 Main.var"##337".Scissors()	→	(1, 0)
Main.var"##337".Paper() 	 Main.var"##337".Rock()	→	(1, 0)
Main.var"##337".Paper() 	 Main.var"##337".Paper()	→	(0, 0)
Main.var"##337".Paper() 	 Main.var"##337".Scissors()	→	(0, 1)
Main.var"##337".Scissors() 	 Main.var"##337".Rock()	→	(0, 1)
Main.var"##337".Scissors() 	 Main.var"##337".Paper()	→	(1, 0)
Main.var"##337".Scissors() 	 Main.var"##337".Scissors()	→	(0, 0)

This is, in a nutshell, why understanding dispatch is very useful. Our rock/paper/scissors game fits in nine lines of code: four for the types definitions, and five for the methods to dispatch correctly. A useful thought experiment would be to think about the code it would take to write code with the same output, but using only if statements: it would be longer, and arguably harder to maintain.